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#BRAZIL MINISTER MORO’S FOLLOWERS:
THE MOST EFFECTIVE ANTIVENOM AGAINST CORRUPTION

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Snake bites compared in Slow Mo: Spectacled Cobra vs Saw Scaled Viper | BBC Earth


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Spectacled Cobra vs Saw Scaled Viper - which snake is striking to bite every time? Watch this amazing Slow Mo footage to find out. Subscribe for more amazing animal videos: http://bit.ly/BBCEarthSub Watch more videos from BBC Earth: Planet Earth http://bit.ly/PlanetEarthPlaylist Blue Planet http://bit.ly/BluePlanetPlaylist Planet Earth II http://bit.ly/PlanetEarthIIPlaylist Planet Dinosaur http://bit.ly/PlanetDinoPlaylist Natural World: India's Deadliest Snakes India has 275 species of snakes, more than any other country on the planet. Every year over one million Indians are bitten. Welcome to BBC EARTH: The world is an amazing place full of stories, beauty and natural wonder. You'll find 50 years worth of astounding, entertaining, thought-provoking and educational natural history content on here. Dramatic, rare, and exclusive, nature doesn't get more exciting than this. Want to share your views with the team behind BBC Earth and win prizes? Join our fan panel here: http://tinyurl.com/YouTube-BBCEarth-F... This is a channel from BBC Worldwide who help fund new BBC programmes Service information and feedback: http://bbcworldwide.com/vod-feedback-...

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SOURCE/LINK: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antivenom



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Antivenom

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


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For the comics character, see Anti-Venom (comics).
Antivenom

Milking a snake for the production of antivenom
Clinical data
Synonyms
antivenin, antivenene
AHFS/Drugs.com
Monograph
Routes of
administration
injection
ATC code
    • J06 
Identifiers
ChemSpider
    • none
Antivenom, also known as antivenin, venom antiserum and antivenom immunoglobulin, is a medication made from antibodies which is used to treat certain venomous bites and stings.[1] They are recommended only if there is significant toxicity or a high risk of toxicity.[1] The specific antivenom needed depends on the species involved.[1] It is given by injection.[1] 
Side effects may be severe.[1] They include serum sickness, shortness of breath, and allergic reactions including anaphylaxis.[1] Antivenom is made by collecting venom from the relevant animal and injecting small amounts of it into a domestic animal.[2] The antibodies that form are then collected from the domestic animal's blood and purified.[2] Versions are available for spider bites, snake bites, fish stings, and scorpion stings.[3] 
Antivenom was first developed in the late 1800s and came into common use in the 1950s.[2][4] They are on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system.[5] Depending on the type, the wholesale cost in the developing world is US$9.00–118.80 per vial.[6] In the United States the wholesale cost is as high as $2,300 per dose.[7][8] 
Contents
    • 1 Medical uses 
    • 2 Mechanism 
    • 3 History 
    • 4 Availability 
        ◦ 4.1 Spiders 
        ◦ 4.2 Acarids 
        ◦ 4.3 Insects 
        ◦ 4.4 Scorpions 
        ◦ 4.5 Marine animals 
        ◦ 4.6 Snakes 
    • 5 Terminology 
    • 6 References 
    • 7 External links 
Medical uses
The principle of antivenom is based on that of vaccines, developed by Edward Jenner; however, instead of inducing immunity in the patient directly, it is induced in a host animal and the hyperimmunized serum is transfused into the patient.[citation needed] 
Antivenoms can be classified into monovalent (when they are effective against a single species' venom) or polyvalent (when they are effective against a range of species, or several different species at the same time). 
Antivenoms for therapeutic use are often preserved as freeze-dried ampoules, but some are available only in liquid form and must be kept refrigerated. They are not immediately inactivated by heat, however, so a minor gap in the cold chain is not disastrous. The majority of antivenoms (including all snake antivenoms) are administered intravenously; however, stonefish and redback spider antivenoms are given intramuscularly. The intramuscular route has been questioned in some situations as not uniformly effective.[9] 
Antivenoms bind to and neutralize the venom, halting further damage, but do not reverse damage already done. Thus, they should be administered as soon as possible after the venom has been injected, but are of some benefit as long as venom is present in the body. Since the advent of antivenoms, some bites which were previously invariably fatal have become only rarely fatal provided that the antivenom is administered soon enough. 
Antivenoms are purified by several processes but will still contain other serum proteins that can act as antigens. Some individuals may react to the antivenom with an immediate hypersensitivity reaction (anaphylaxis) or a delayed hypersensitivity (serum sickness) reaction and antivenom should, therefore, be used with caution. Although rare, severe hypersensitivity reactions including anaphylaxis to antivenin are possible.[10] Despite this caution, antivenom is typically the sole effective treatment for a life-threatening condition, and once the precautions for managing these reactions are in place, an anaphylactoid reaction is not grounds to refuse to give antivenom if otherwise indicated. Although it is a popular myth that a person allergic to horses "cannot" be given antivenom, the side effects are manageable, and antivenom should be given as rapidly as the side effects can be managed.[11] 
In the U.S., the only approved antivenom for pit viper (rattlesnake, copperhead and water moccasin) snakebite is based on a purified product made in sheep known as CroFab.[12] It was approved by the FDA in October, 2000. U.S. coral snake antivenom is no longer manufactured, and remaining stocks of in-date antivenom for coral snakebite expired in the Fall of 2009, leaving the U.S. without a coral snake antivenom. Efforts are being made to obtain approval for a coral snake antivenom produced in Mexico which would work against U.S. coral snakebite, but such approval remains speculative.[citation needed] 
As an alternative when conventional antivenom is not available, hospitals sometimes use an intravenous version of the antiparalytic drug neostigmine to delay the effects of neurotoxic envenomation through snakebite.[13] Some promising research results have also been reported for administering the drug nasally as a "universal antivenom" for neurotoxic snakebite treatment.[14] 
Mechanism
Antivenoms act by binding to and neutralizing venoms. 
Although individuals can vary in their physiopathological response and sensitivity to animal venoms, there is no natural immunity to them in humans. Some ophiophagic animals are immune to the venoms produced by some species of venomous snakes, by the presence of antihemorrhagic and antineurotoxic factors in their blood.[citation needed] 
It is quite possible to immunize a person directly with small and graded doses of venom rather than an animal. According to the Greek history, King Mithridates did this in order to protect himself against attempts of poisoning, therefore this procedure is often called mithridatism. However, unlike a vaccination against disease which must only produce a latent immunity that can be roused in case of infection, in order to neutralize a sudden and large dose of venom requires maintaining a high level of circulating antibody (a hyperimmunized state), through repeated venom injections (typically every 21 days). The long-term health effects of this process have not been studied. Further, cytotoxic venom components can cause pain and scarring at the immunization site. Finally, the resistance is specific to the used particular venom; maintaining resistance to a variety of venom requires multiple monthly venom injections. Thus, there is no practical purpose or favorable cost/benefit ratio for this, except for the people like zoo handlers, researchers, and circus artists who deal closely with venomous animals. Mithridatism has been tried with success in Australia and Brazil and total immunity has been achieved even to multiple bites of extremely venomous cobras and pit vipers.[citation needed] 
Because neurotoxic venoms must travel farther in the body to do harm and are produced in smaller quantities, it is easier to develop resistance to them than directly cytotoxic venoms (such as those of most vipers) that are injected in large quantity and damage immediately upon injection.[citation needed] 
History
The first antivenom for snakes (called an anti-ophidic serum) was developed by Albert Calmette, a French scientist of the Pasteur Institute working at its Indochine branch in 1895, against the Indian Cobra (Naja naja). In 1901, Vital Brazil, working at the Instituto Butantan in São Paulo, Brazil, developed the first monovalent and polyvalent antivenoms for Central and South American Crotalus and Bothrops genera, as well as for certain species of venomous spiders, scorpions, and frogs.[citation needed] In Australia, the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories (CSL) began antivenom research in the 1920s. CSL has developed antivenoms for the redback spider, funnel-web spiders and all deadly Australian snakes.[15] 
Availability
There is an overall shortage of antivenom to treat snakebites. Because of this shortage, clinical researchers are looking at seeing if low doses can be as effective in severe neurotoxic snake envenoming.[16] 
Internationally, antivenoms must conform to the standards of pharmacopoeia and the World Health Organization (WHO).[17] Antivenoms have been developed for the venoms associated with the following animals:[18] 
Spiders
Antivenom 
Species 
Country 
Funnel web spider antivenom 
Sydney funnel-web spider 
Australia 
Soro antiaracnidico 
Brazilian wandering spider 
Brazil 
Soro antiloxoscelico 
Recluse spider 
Brazil 
Suero antiloxoscelico 
Chilean recluse 
Chile 
Aracmyn 
All species of Loxosceles and Latrodectus 
Mexico 
Redback spider antivenom 
Redback spider 
Australia 
Black widow spider (Latrodectus Mactans) antivenin (equine origin) 
Southern black widow spider 
United States 
SAIMR spider antivenom 
Button spider 
South Africa 
Anti-Latrodectus antivenom 
Black widow spider 
Argentina 
Acarids
Antivenom 
Species 
Country 
Tick antivenom 
Paralysis tick 
Australia 
Insects
Antivenom 
Species 
Country 
soro antilonomico 
Lonomia obliqua caterpillar 
Brazil 
Scorpions
Antivenom 
Species 
Country 
Alacramyn 
Centruroides limpidus, C. noxius, C. suffusus 
Mexico 
Suero Antialacran 
Centruroides limpidus, C. noxius, C. suffusus 
Mexico 
Tunisian polyvalent antivenom 
All Iranian scorpions 
Tunisia 
Anti-Scorpion Venom Serum I.P.(AScVS) 
Indian red scorpion 
India 
Anti-scorpionique 
Androctonus spp., Buthus spp. 
Algeria 
Scorpion antivenom 
Black scorpion, Buthus occitanus 
Morocco 
Soro antiscorpionico 
Tityus spp. 
Brazil 
SAIMR scorpion antivenin 
Parabuthus spp. 
South Africa 
Purified prevalent Anti-Scorpion Serum(equine) 
Leiurus spp. and Androctonus scorpions 
Egypt 
INOSCORPI MENA (Middle East and North Africa) 
Androctonus australis hector, Androctonus mauritanicus, Androctonus australis garzoni, Buthus occitanus mardochei, Buthus occitanus occitanus, Leiurus quinquestriatus quinquestriatus, Leiurus quinquestriatus hebreus and related species. 
Spain 
Marine animals
Antivenom 
Species 
Country 
CSL box jellyfish antivenom 
Box jellyfish 
Australia 
CSL stonefish antivenom 
Stonefish 
Australia 
Snakes
Antivenom 
Species 
Country 
Polyvalent snake antivenom 
South American rattlesnake Crotalus durissus and fer-de-lance Bothrops asper 
Mexico (Instituto Bioclon); South America 
INOSERP MENA 
Bitis arietans, Cerastes cerastes, Naja haje, Macrovipera lebetina obtusa, Vipera palestinae, Naja pallida, Naja nigricollis, Walterinnesia aegyptia, Echis leucogaster, Macrovipera deserti, Cerastes vipera, Cerastes gasperettii, Echis coloratus, Echis pyrramidum, Echis khosatzkii, Echis sochureki, Echis megalocephalus, Echis omanensis, Echis carinatus sochureki, Macrovipera lebetina transmediterranea, Macrovipera lebetina turanica, Macrovipera mauritanica, Naja nubiae, Pseudocerastes persicus fieldi, Pseudocerastes persicus persicus, Vipera bornmuelleri, Vipera latastei, Vipera raddei kurdistanica 
Spain 
INOSERP Pan-Africa (Sub-Sahara) 
Naja nigricollis, Dendroaspis polylepis, Echis ocellatus, Bitis arietans, Echis leucogaster, Echis pyramidum, Echis coloratus, Bitis gabonica, Bitis gabonica rhinoceros, Dendroaspis viridis, Dendroaspis angusticeps, Dendroaspis jamesoni, Naja haje, Naja pallida, Naja melanoleuca 
Spain 
Polyvalent snake antivenom 
Saw-scaled viper Echis carinatus, Russell's viper Daboia russelli, spectacled cobra Naja naja, common krait Bungarus caeruleus 
India 
Death adder antivenom 
Death adder 
Australia 
Taipan antivenom 
Taipan 
Australia 
Black snake antivenom 
Pseudechis spp. 
Australia 
Tiger snake antivenom 
Australian copperheads, tiger snakes, Pseudechis spp., rough-scaled snake 
Australia 
Brown snake antivenom 
Brown snakes 
Australia 
Polyvalent snake antivenom 
Many Australian snakes 
Australia 
Sea snake antivenom 
Sea snakes 
Australia 
Vipera tab 
Vipera spp. 
UK 
Polyvalent crotalid antivenin (CroFab—Crotalidae Polyvalent Immune Fab (Ovine)) 
North American pit vipers (all rattlesnakes, copperheads, and cottonmouths) 
North America 
Soro antibotropicocrotalico 
Pit vipers and rattlesnakes 
Brazil 
Antielapidico 
Coral snakes 
Brazil 
SAIMR polyvalent antivenom 
Mambas, cobras, Rinkhalses, puff adders (Unsuitable small adders: B. worthingtoni, B. atropos, B. caudalis, B. cornuta, B. heraldica, B. inornata, B. peringueyi, B. schneideri, B. xeropaga) 
South Africa[19] 
SAIMR echis antivenom 
Saw-scaled vipers 
South Africa 
SAIMR Boomslang antivenom 
Boomslang 
South Africa 
Panamerican serum 
Coral snakes 
Costa Rica 
Anticoral 
Coral snakes 
Costa Rica 
Anti-mipartitus antivenom 
Coral snakes 
Costa Rica 
Anticoral monovalent 
Coral snakes 
Costa Rica 
Antimicrurus 
Coral snakes 
Argentina 
Coralmyn 
Coral snakes 
Mexico 
Anti-micruricoscorales 
Coral snakes 
Colombia 
Terminology
The name "antivenin" comes from the French word venin, meaning venom, which in turn was derived from Latin venenum, meaning poison.[citation needed] 
Historically, the term antivenin was predominant around the world, its first published use being in 1895.[20] In 1981, the World Health Organization decided that the preferred terminology in the English language would be venom and antivenom rather than venin and antivenin or venen and antivenene.[21] 
References
    1. 
    • WHO Model Formulary 2008 (PDF). World Health Organization. 2009. pp. 396–397. ISBN 9789241547659. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 December 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2017. 
    • Dart, Richard C. (2004). Medical Toxicology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 250–251. ISBN 9780781728454. Archived from the original on 2017-01-09. 
    • British national formulary : BNF 69 (69 ed.). British Medical Association. 2015. p. 43. ISBN 9780857111562. 
    • Gad, Shayne Cox (2007). Handbook of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 692. ISBN 9780470117101. Archived from the original on 2017-01-09. 
    • "WHO Model List of Essential Medicines (19th List)" (PDF). World Health Organization. April 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 December 2016. Retrieved 8 December 2016. 
    • "Antivenom Serum". International Drug Price Indicator Guide. Archived from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 8 December 2016. 
    • Lewis, Danny (11 September 2015). "Why A Single Vial Of Antivenom Can Cost $14,000". Smithsonian. Retrieved 9 January 2017. 
    • "One step closer to cheaper antivenom". ScienceDaily. 3 September 2015. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 9 January 2017. 
    • Isbister GK. (2002). "Failure of intramuscular antivenom in Redback spider envenoming". Emerg Med (Fremantle). 14 (4): 436–9. doi:10.1046/j.1442-2026.2002.00356.x. PMID 12534488. 
    • Bhoite RR, Bhoite GR, Bagdure DN, Bawaskar HS (2015). "Anaphylaxis to scorpion antivenin and its management following envenomation by Indian red scorpion, Mesobuthus tamulus". Indian Journal of Critical Care Medicine. 19 (9): 547–549. doi:10.4103/0972-5229.164807. PMC 4578200. 
    • See, for example, the Antivenom Precautions paragraph of the Medication section of James Forster (2006-03-14). "Snake Envenomations, Sea". eMedicine Emergency Medicine (environmental). Archived from the original on 26 June 2006. Retrieved 2006-06-25. 
    • "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2016-02-08. Link to PDF for full prescribing information, retrieved 11/11/12 
    • Franklin, Deborah, "Potential Treatment For Snakebites Leads To A Paralyzing Test Archived 2014-08-09 at the Wayback Machine", NPR.org, July 31, 2013. 
    • "Universal antidote for snakebite: Experimental trial represents promising step Archived 2014-07-07 at the Wayback Machine", California Academy of Sciences via Science Daily, May 28, 2014. 
    • "CSL antivenoms 1956". Power House Museum. Archived from the original on 7 August 2016. Retrieved 24 February 2017. 
    • Agarwal, R; Aggarwal, AN; Gupta, D; Behera, D; Jindal, SK (June 2005). "Low dose of snake antivenom is as effective as high dose in patients with severe neurotoxic snake envenoming". Emergency Medicine Journal. 22 (6): 397–9. doi:10.1136/emj.2004.020727. PMC 1726801. PMID 15911942. 
    • Theakston RD, Warrell DA, Griffiths E (April 2003). "Report of a WHO workshop on the standardization and control of antivenoms". Toxicon. 41 (5): 541–57. doi:10.1016/S0041-0101(02)00393-8. PMID 12676433. 
    • "Appendix: Antivenom Tables". Clinical Toxicology. 41 (3): 317–27. 2003. doi:10.1081/CLT-120021117. 
    • Spawls, S; Branch B (1995). The Dangerous Snakes of Africa. Ralph Curtis Books. Dubai: Oriental Press. p. 192. ISBN 0-88359-029-8. 
    • "Antivenin". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. 
    21. World Health Organization (1981). Progress in the characterization of venoms and standardization of antivenoms. Geneva: WHO Offset Publications. p. 5. ISBN 92-4-170058-0. 
External links
    • Antivenom Index, a joint project of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums and the American Association of Poison Control Centers which helps locate rare antivenoms 
    • Venom Response Program of the Miami-Dade Fire Rescue service




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